Galatians 3:28—Prooftext or Context?

There is neither Jew nor Greek, there is neither slave nor free, there is neither male nor female; for you are all one in Christ Jesus. Galatians 3:28

No single verse of Scripture has attracted as much attention during the modern gender role debate as Galatians 3:28.¹ The declaration by the Apostle Paul that "there is neither ... male nor female ... in Christ," though not directly addressing the role of women in the home and in the church, nevertheless, has played a critical role in the development of the issue.² Egalitarian and complementarian scholars claim to be in general agreement about the main point of this verse-all believers are united in Christ. The question concerns what else this verse might entail. Clearly salvation does not eliminate all of our human differences. As Christians we retain racial, social, and gender distinctions. In what sense, then, is it true that in Christ there is neither male nor female? Does Gal 3:28 negate gender specific roles?

Egalitarians answer the latter question affirmatively, seeing the text as "the foundation for a new social order in the church."³ The result of this new social order is that there are no longer gender-based ministry distinctions in the home or the church. Complementarians, however, do not find such a proof text for eliminating gender roles here in the midst of Paul's argument for justification by faith alone (Gal 3-4). As S. Lewis Johnson has put it,

Never could the Apostle Paul have envisioned the place of Galatians 3:28 in contemporary evangelical literature... . While traditionally commentators have discussed Paul's words in the context of the Biblical doctrine of justification by faith, that has become a secondary matter. One can understand this to some extent, since the vigorous debate over sex roles has, in effect, lifted it from its exegetical underpinnings and set it as a lonely text, a kind of proof text, in the midst of a swirling theological debate. This is not without justification, but it also is not without peril. I am referring to the human tendency to forget sound hermeneutics and find things that are not really in the text.⁴

In an effort to understand the text as it was intended, this article argues that Gal 3:28 does not abolish gender specific roles for men and women. Rather, Paul simply has in mind that all believers, no matter what their racial, social, or gender status, share the same spiritual status in their union with Christ. Further, if one chooses to speak in terms of "equality in Christ," based on Gal 3:28, it must be done carefully and with precision. It is only properly understood as equality "in Christ," or as equal status "before God," not gender equality in role or function.⁵

Egalitarian View: Galatians 3:28 as the Magna Carta of Humanity

Though egalitarians may interpret some of the details of Gal 3:28 differently, there are at least two recurring elements found in most of their treatments of this important text. The first element is what the text means and the second is how the text is used to interpret other gender related passages in the New Testament. These two elements can be summarized with the terms declaration and interpretation.

What the Text Means: Declaration

What is it, according to egalitarians, that Paul has declared so boldly in Gal 3:28? Exactly what does it mean that "in Christ" there is neither "male nor female?" Paul K. Jewett speaks of this passage as the "Magna Carta of Humanity," the great charter of Christian equality between male and female.⁶ Klyne Snodgrass has called it "the most socially explosive text in the Bible."⁷ Others identify this particular text as the "Emancipation Proclamation for Women."⁸ By these statements egalitarians mean that Gal 3:28 contains a Christian revolutionary principle for fundamental human rights. For them, the profound truth of this text is that in Christ women have been liberated from the slavery and servitude of patriarchy.

Galatians 3:28, then, is seen as the definitive theological starting point for gender equality in the New Testament. The gospel so unites all Christians that there are no longer ethnic (Jew nor Greek), socio-economic (slave nor free), or gender distinctions (male nor female) in Christ. Women may now move "beyond the curse."⁹ The old distinctions have become irrelevant.¹⁰ The sinful post-Edenic order of male-female hierarchy has been abolished. The result of this unity in Christ is that in both the home and the church there are no longer gender-based ministry distinctions.

Arguing for this view, David Scholer says that Gal 3:28 is "the fundamental Pauline theological basis for the inclusion of women and men as equal and mutual partners in all of the ministries of the church."¹¹ In Good News for Women, Rebecca Groothuis agrees saying, "Of all the texts that support biblical equality, Gal 3:26-28 is probably the most important."¹² The organization Christians for Biblical Equality demonstrates the importance of this verse in its purpose or vision statement:

Christians for Biblical Equality ... believe that the Bible, properly interpreted, teaches the fundamental equality of believers of all racial and ethnic groups and all economic classes, based on the teachings of scripture as reflected in Galatians 3:28: There is neither Jew nor Greek, there is neither slave nor free, there is neither male nor female; for you are all one in Christ Jesus.¹³

In sum, egalitarians believe that Gal 3:28 declares that in Christ there is not only equality as to one's status before God but also the elimination of male-female role distinctions, and thus, undifferentiated role interchangeability in both the home and the church.¹⁴ Because male and female are equal in Christ, they are both "equal to serve" without any gender-based scriptural qualifications.¹⁵

How the Text Is Used: Interpretation

Egalitarians claim that Gal 3:28 is not only the definitive statement on gender equality but also the interpretive key that unlocks the more difficult gender passages in the rest of the New Testament. According to Grenz and Kjesbo, egalitarians see this verse as having "hermeneutical priority."¹⁶ It has first place in the process of interpretation. The verse has been identified by Grant Osborne as the "crux interpretum of equality."¹⁷ That is, it is the theological and hermeneutical paradigm for all gender passages in the New Testament.¹⁸

Here is how this process of interpreting "difficult passages"-those passages that appear to limit the role of women in ministry-works. Since Gal 3:28 contains the universal principle of gender equality based on the revolutionary significance of the gospel, it must be given priority over other gender passages.¹⁹ That which is universal in scope interprets (or unlocks) the correct meaning of that which is culturally specific (e.g., 1 Cor 11:3-16; 14:34-35; 1 Tim 2:11-15).²⁰ Thus, when Paul instructs women not "to teach or to have authority over" men (1 Tim 2:12), the proper understanding of that verse must be seen through Gal 3:28 and not vice versa. What the Apostle forbids in 1 Timothy 2, according to this view, is only directed toward a particular historical problem (perhaps false teaching or teaching in a domineering way in Ephesus) and is not a normative prohibition against women as pastors.²¹ Paul means something like this, "I do not permit these women to teach because they are not teaching the truth." Whatever the incidental or particular limitations are that the New Testament puts on the ministry of women, they are just that-incidental limitations. The theological truth conveyed in Gal 3:28, however, is that which is abiding and permanent.

But is this really what Paul meant when he personally penned this letter under the inspiration of the Spirit of God (Gal 6:11)? The next three sections of this article are offered as an attempt to show that an egalitarian reading of Gal 3:28 is not at all what the Apostle had in mind. The two recurring elements introduced above, declaration and interpretation, seem to be more a product of egalitarian commitments than from a solid biblical hermeneutic.

The Novelty of the Egalitarian Interpretation: A Brief Survey of Galatians 3:28 in Church History 

It is not insignificant that the egalitarian interpretation of Gal 3:28 is a novel interpretation. There ought to be some concern about viewing Gal 3:28 as egalitarians do since there is little, if any, precedence in the history of interpretation to do so. S. Lewis Johnson has briefly surveyed how Gal 3:28 has been handled throughout church history, and though he is careful to qualify his work as not being comprehensive, nevertheless, he states,

The text did not loom large in that world, and while acknowledging my limited knowledge of that time, I have not yet found one extensive treatment of the text. I can only conclude that the early church regarded Galatians 3:28 as a text that was pellucidly clear.²²

The clear teaching of the text is about a believer's status in Christ. Johnson finds no evidence among the major teachers in the history of the church for a modern egalitarian understanding of Gal 3:28.

Ignatius, Bishop of Antioch, Justin Martyr, Clement of Alexandria, Hippolytus, Gregory of Nyssa, and John Chrysostom each handle Gal 3:28 in the context of salvation, and yet none of them speaks in terms of abolishing gender roles based on this text.²³ One of Augustine's few references to this text is for the purpose of emphasizing the unity that all have in Christ. According to Johnson, "he says nothing of how this status relates to function in the church."²⁴ Martin Luther's treatment of the text, in Johnson's words, affirms that "all believers have the same status in Christ, but in other spheres, such as the family, a submission within the equality all have in Christ is Biblical."²⁵ John Calvin refers to Gal 3:28 many times, the sum of which, says Johnson, is that though all have liberty in Christ, liberty is not without its limits. In other words, freedom in Christ truly exists, yet there are "limits and restrictions of a different order."²⁶ Concluding his brief survey, Johnson claims that apparently the major teachers in the history of the church did not think that "Galatians 3:28 abolished the male-female role distinction in marriage or the church."²⁷

The Pauline Understanding of Galatians 3:28

In order to understand Gal 3:28 correctly one must set the purpose of this single verse in the larger context of Paul's entire letter to the churches of Galatia. This requires a grasp of both the purpose of the letter as a whole as well as the broader argument surrounding the verse found in Galatians 3-4. As Rick Hove has well stated, "Paul did not begin his discussion with 3:28, nor did he pen this verse as a solitary proverbial saying. Rather, the meaning of ‘there is neither Jew nor Greek, slave nor free, male nor female, for you are all one in Christ Jesus' is largely determined by its context."²⁸

The Book of Galatians

The theme of Galatians is justification by grace through faith. Certain Jewish Christians (Judaizers) had replaced the gospel of God's grace with a "different gospel" (1:6)- observance of the law, demanding that Gentile Christians observe the rite of circumcision. The Apostle Paul writes to correct this problem with a bold statement on salvation by grace through faith. Many commentators see three parts to the Epistle.²⁹ First, Paul writes to defend the uniqueness of the gospel based on his apostleship (Gal 1-2); second, he develops the theological argument for salvation by grace and not works (Gal 3-4); and third, with a more pastoral emphasis, Paul argues for the freedom that comes through life in the Spirit (Gal 5-6).

The Broader Context: Galatians 3-4

Paul's theological argument for salvation by grace through faith is a firm rebuke to those who believed they "received the Spirit by the works of the law" (3:2). In fact, the law never saved anyone. Abraham, "the consummate Jewish example of righteousness, serves as a weighty example of one who was justified by faith, not by obedience to the law."³⁰ As Abraham was made righteous by faith so Gentiles are made righteous by faith (3:8). Through Christ's death the way of salvation has been opened for Jews and Gentiles alike to become children of Abraham "and receive the promise of the Spirit through faith" (3:14).

There are three important theological themes around which chapters 3-4 are built: promise/inheritance, law, and faith. In 3:6-25 Paul sketches the course of redemptive history from Abraham (3:6-14) through Moses (3:15-22) to Christ (3:22-25), that is, "from promise through law to faith."³¹ Faith, found in verses 25-26, however, is the hinge on which Paul's theological argument turns. As Timothy George notes, "‘Faith' in fact, is the key word linking together the two halves of Paul's theological exposition."³² In 3:25 Paul concludes his explanation of the purpose of the law saying, "But after faith has come, we are no longer under a tutor." He then adds, in 3:26, "For you are all sons of God through faith in Christ Jesus."

From 3:26 to 4:31, as he previously introduced promise, law, and faith, Paul sketches the course backwards, as it were, from faith through law to promise. The movement is from faith, a work of the Spirit (3:27-4:7), through law, the bondage of this world (4:8-11), to promise, this time exemplified through Abraham's two sons, Isaac and Ishmael (4:21-31).³³ Whatever Gal 3:28 means, it can only be properly interpreted in light of these three great theological themes: promise, law, and faith.

The Immediate Context: Galatians 3:26-27, 29

The content of these particular verses shows that the passage is framed by two important clauses, "you are all sons of God" (3:26a), and "you are Abraham's seed" (3:29).³⁴ Both clauses speak in terms of the promise/inheritance language mentioned above. Those who are true sons of Father Abraham are really sons of Abba Father. And as sons, they are joint heirs of God through Christ (4:7).

Verse 26: For you are all sons of God through faith in Christ Jesus.

Verse 26 makes four important points to the Galatian readers.³⁵ First, they all have the same status before God. Second, their status is identified as sons of God. It is indeed a blessing from God to be adopted by God. Third, the basis of this new relationship (new status) is the object of their faith, Christ Jesus. It is only possible because God sent forth his Son in the fullness of time. Fourth, the means for this new relationship is faith in Christ Jesus. In sum, this verse explains the new status of believers as sons of God and the means by which every believer attains that status, through faith in Christ.

Verse 27: For as many of you as were baptized into Christ have put on Christ.

It is unnecessary to develop a theology of baptism for the purposes of this article.³⁶ As long as one avoids finding baptismal regeneration in the text, the other two main approaches end in the same place. Whether Paul is speaking of the baptism of the Spirit into the body of Christ (Rom 6:3; 1 Cor 12:13) or water immersion as a testimony of regeneration, or both, since both are in fact biblical realities, the result is that believers find themselves in Christ and "have put on Christ." Just as all believers are sons of God (3:26), so all ("as many of you as") have put on Christ. The metaphor, to "put on Christ," may or may not refer to the converts' stripping off old clothes and putting on fresh ones as part of the physical act of baptism.³⁷ It is clear, though, that in Paul's other writings, the metaphor to put off the old way of life and put on the new is frequently employed (Rom 6-8; 13:11-14; Eph 6:11-14; Col 3:10). The baptism imagery symbolizes this great exchange. Paul is saying that all those who have put on Christ are dressed in the same way-they are clothed in his righteousness and not their own. There is no believer for whom this is not the case, "there is neither Jew nor Greek, there is neither slave nor free, there is neither male nor female, for you are all one in Christ Jesus" (3:28).

Verse 29: And if you are Christ's, then you are Abraham's seed, and heirs according to the promise.

Thomas Schreiner summarizes well the significance of this verse, saying, "Incorporation into Christ is the means by which people become the seed of Abraham since Jesus is the true seed of Abraham."³⁸ Here Paul argues that those who are "sons of God through faith" (3:26) are, as a result of faith, also sons of Abraham, "Abraham's seed" (3:29). As he said in 3:7, "those who are of faith are sons of Abraham." Paul speaks in terms of the singular seed to make clear the connection between the promised seed, who is Christ (3:16), and those who by virtue of being in Christ are heirs according to the promise. The point in relation to 3:28 is that those who would otherwise not be sons according to the promise-Greeks, slaves, females-all inherit the blessings of sonship in the same way and to the same degree.

Galatians 3:28 neither Jew nor Greek, ... neither slave nor free, ... neither male nor female

An Obvious Pattern

There is an obviously poetic pattern to Paul's statement. His triple negation intends to make an important point and the combination of the three couplets no doubt accentuates his argument.³⁹ The final phrase in the verse, "for you are all one in Christ Jesus," interprets each couplet. Simply put, it is because all are "one in Christ" that there is neither Jew nor Greek, etc. But is this all Paul intends? Why does he choose this particular pattern? Is there a source from which he is quoting that might assist in the process of interpretation? If so, what else is Paul saying?

Two Debated Sources

In an effort to explain why Paul has used these three particular pairs in Gal 3:28, scholars have searched both biblical and extra-biblical literature for an answer. Two main sources are commonly identified as standing behind Gal 3:28. The first possible source is a pre-Pauline baptismal formula.⁴⁰ This formula, or confession, would be stated during the baptismal ceremony. Presumably, it would begin in verse 27 and end with verse 28. Parallel formulas are found in 1 Cor 12:13 and Col 3:11. Paul also makes some reference to the same three pairs of Gal 3:28 in 1 Cor 7, although the formula does not appear to be in view.⁴¹

Some egalitarians find this proposal convincing.⁴² If it is the case that Gal 3:28 points to a pre-Pauline formula, then obviously that confession was already circulating independently throughout the Christian community. And, as Cottrell puts it, "that would pave the way for detaching these pairs from their immediate literary context in Galatians and viewing them as part of a more general formula or general principle with a very broad application."⁴³ In other words, when seen in this light Gal 3:28 speaks not just of one's relationship before God but to all cultural and social relationships. As Myrtle Langley puts it, understanding the baptism formula this way defines "not only the religious, but also the social, cultural and political consequences of being ‘one in Christ.'"⁴⁴

Although it may be the case that a baptismal formula is behind Gal 3:28, there are at least two reasons for caution. First, it is not at all clear that such a formula was pre-Pauline. It may, in fact, be based on Paul's own teaching and practice.⁴⁵ Second, even granting the possibility that Gal 3:28 is connected to a baptismal formula (pre-Pauline or otherwise), one must still interpret the verse in its immediate context. And there is no compelling reason to treat the phrase "male and female" any differently than the other two couplets. Each of the couplets must be interpreted in light of the larger argument Paul makes in Gal 3-4.

The second source that is said to stand behind Gal 3:28 is an ancient prayer of Jewish men. The prayer is made up of three "blessings" or "benedictions" that appear in the Jewish cycle of morning prayers: "Blessed be He [God] that He did not make me a Gentile; blessed be He that He did not make me a boor [i.e., an ignorant peasant or a slave]; blessed be He that He did not make me a woman."⁴⁶ The connection with the three pairs of Gal 3:28 is obvious. Thus, if Paul has this prayer in mind, the argument runs, then he must be consciously opposing a demeaning view of women that was present in a chauvinistic Jewish culture.⁴⁷

There are at least three problems with understanding Gal 3:28 in this way.⁴⁸ First, the earliest dating on a source for this prayer is the mid-second century (attributed to Rabbi Judah Ben Elai)-about one hundred years after Paul writes this letter.⁴⁹ Thus, as Cottrell says, "it is pure speculation" to think that this was a Jewish prayer that Paul would have grown up praying.⁵⁰ Second, it is difficult to imagine why Paul would choose the negative example of ancient Jewish men in order to positively illustrate the passing on of the great patriarch Abraham's faith. Again, the proper interpretation of Gal 3:28 is more likely to be framed by the broad context of promise/ inheritance, law, and faith. The same can be said of the immediate context, Gal 3:26-27, 29. Third, if the prayer was indeed a first century prayer of Jewish men, was it necessarily as offensive in a first century context as it seems to be in today's context? Perhaps not. As Bruce suggests, "the reason for the threefold thanksgiving was not any positive disparagement of Gentiles, slaves or women as persons but the fact that they were disqualified from several religious privileges which were open to free Jewish males."⁵¹

In light of the concerns regarding both of these debated sources, the baptismal formula and an ancient prayer, it seems best to look more directly to the text of Galatians itself for the meaning of Gal 3:28. Whatever the verse means, it is best explained in terms of promise/inheritance, law, and faith-the three interdependent theological themes of Galatians 3-4.

A Contextual Understanding: The Metaphor of Inheritance

There is little question as to whether the Epistle as a whole has something to do with the law of Moses. Paul has obviously written to clarify the relationship between the law and the gospel. The apparent influence of the Judaizers is the historical occasion that Gal 3-4 addresses. "No one is justified by the law... for ‘the just shall live by faith'" (Gal 3:11). The question, then, is: What point might Paul be making about the law in Gal 3:28?

Several suggestions have been made in an effort to explain Gal 3:28 in relation to the law. However, the most convincing proposal seems to be what Cottrell calls "the metaphor of inheritance."⁵² Reiterating that what is at stake in the book of Galatians is how one enters into and sustains a right relationship with God, Cottrell asks, "What is there about the context-salvation and the Law of Moses-that leads Paul to mention these three (pairs) in particular?"⁵³ Cottrell points out that the question is not whether any of these can be saved, but how they receive salvation. Under the Old Testament law, Greeks, slaves, and females did not enjoy the right of land and property inheritance directly. In the New Covenant, however, salvation is described with the metaphor of inheritance as that which anyone may personally receive. Inheritance, then, is not simply incidental to Paul's argument regarding salvation by grace through faith-it is fundamentally descriptive of salvation. The blessing of salvation, or inheritance, comes through Abraham to the Gentiles (Gal 3:14), is not based on the law (Gal 3:18), and makes those who receive it heirs according to the promise (Gal 3:29). But how can a Gentile, a slave, or a woman become a rightful heir?

Under the law of Moses, only Jews, not Gentiles, were rightful heirs to the land of promise (Gen 12:1-3; 15:7; Exod 32:13; Deut 2:31). Another qualification for inheritance was one's free status. Slaves did not ordinarily qualify as heirs. This is the basis for Paul's argument in Gal 4:1-7. The final limitation on inheritance under the law was that normally only sons (male), not daughters (female), inherited the father's estate (Num 27:1-11; Deut 25:5-10; Prov 13:22; ). Simply put, the pattern for inheritance under the law was Jewish free males.⁵⁴ In the New Covenant, however, something far better than an earthly estate is in view; "there is neither Jew nor Greek, there is neither slave nor free, there is neither male nor female; for you are all one in Christ Jesus" (Gal 3:28). Paul's point in Gal 3:28 is that everyone who receives the inheritance of salvation receives it the same way and experiences the same justifying results-union with Christ. According to Paul, anyone may become a rightful heir through faith in Christ Jesus (Gal 3:26). Jesus Christ, as heir of all things (Heb 1:2), gives the blessing of sonship to all who believe. "For you are all sons of God through faith in Christ Jesus" (Gal 3:26).

Responding to Galatians 3:28 as the Magna Carta of Humanity 

So far it has been argued that an egalitarian reading of Gal 3:28 as the Magna Carta of humanity is unacceptable because not only is it a novel reading of the text, it is not at all what the Apostle Paul intended. It remains to ask the question: In what sense may one speak of "equality in Christ" based on this text? Put another way: Is Gal 3:28 the definitive statement on gender equality in the New Testament? Several responses are in order.

First, Gal 3:28 cannot be the definitive statement on gender equality in the New Testament when the main idea of the verse has little to do with gender roles let alone their abolishment. The context of the verse does not allow it. The preceding section shows that Paul's intended meaning centers not on gender roles or their abolishment, but rather on how salvation is described, via the metaphor of inheritance, as that which anyone may personally receive.

Second, one must account for the absence of the word "equality" in Gal 3:28. The main idea of the verse is not equality in Christ but union in and with Christ. It is clear that unity in Christ does not automatically remove all racial, economic, and gender distinctions. Certainly, there are some social consequences that result in union with Christ. As Schreiner says, "The union of Jew and Gentile in Christ influences dramatically table fellowship (Rom 14:1-15:13; 1 Cor 8:1-11:1; Gal 2:11-14). One cannot place soteriology and social relations in hermetically sealed compartments so that the one never touches on the other."⁵⁵ And yet, while there are some social consequences that result in union with Christ, the decisive question is: "How does Paul himself articulate the social consequences?"⁵⁶ Schreiner continues,

Paul himself never understood Galatians 3:28 to cancel out all distinctions. He continued to believe that there were differences between Jews and Greeks; otherwise the whole argument in Romans 9-11 is superfluous. He continued to believe that there were differences between slaves and masters; otherwise, his advice to both is contradictory (Eph 6:5-9; Col 3:22-4:1). He continued to believe there were differences between males and females. Otherwise, his indictment of homosexuality is inconsistent (Rom 1:26-27), his commands to husbands and wives incomprehensible (Eph 5:22-33; Col 3:18-19) and his restrictions on women a relapse from his better days (1 Cor 11:2-16; 14:33b-36; 1 Tim 2:9-15). The value and worth of all human beings is proclaimed by Paul, but this verse must not be served up so that it fits with modern ideologies. We must hear Paul's own word-be it ever so foreign to us.⁵⁷

Third, even if one grants that equality is in the text implicitly, in the sense that if we are all "in Christ" we are all equal, then it can be understood properly only as a "spiritual equality" that describes equal access to God and an equal standing before God, not an equality of roles. There is nothing in the text of Gal 3:28 or its surrounding verses that argues for male and female role interchangeability. In short, Gal 3:28 is a soteriological statement, not a gender-role statement. It makes very clear that all Christians have equal standing before God.

Fourth, if Gal 3:28 is not the definitive theological statement on gender equality, then neither should it serve as the interpretive key for all other gender passages in the New Testament. Köstenberger rightly warns, "An interpretation that starts with the assumption that Gal 3:28 relates directly to contemporary gender issues will have difficulty entering into Paul's argument in the context of the passage."⁵⁸ If the broader gender issue is not allowed contextually, then certainly it cannot be legitimately identified as that which has hermeneutical priority.

In conclusion, a proper understanding of Gal 3:28 is required in order to avoid minimizing the message of the gospel. Paul's point in this particular verse is that all people are justified the same way, by grace through faith, with the same results. Those who find more than this in Gal 3:28 have either mishandled the text or have depended too heavily on sources outside of the text and are in danger of minimizing the glorious message of the gospel of grace.⁵⁹ Further, the irony of the debate that has centered around Gal 3:28 is that egalitarians have argued for maximizing the ministry of women based on this text. Both complementarian and egalitarian women are wise enough to know that in order to maximize one's ministry, whether male or female, one must serve in obedience to the Word of God rightly divided.